Is free trade ever fair trade? Essay

Every one of us has probably seen reports or heard something about demonstrations against globalization when international organizations like the WTO meet. One example was the G8 meeting in July 2001. So we have to ask us the question why there are some people who protest against globalization and also against the free trade the WTO stands for. The main complain and concern of these groups is unfairness. They say free trade is unfair, the low wages are unfair, the poor working conditions of foreign workers, the environmental standards in less developed countries, the high profits of multinational corporations, the inequality in incomes around the world, everything is unfair. If these reproofs are true it would mean that also free trade and globalization is unfair. However the people of international institutions and multinational corporations who are in favour of free trade and globalisation also use the term fairness in their arguments. If a multinational company pays low wages in less developed countries, they can claim that the wages are still fair set because they are above the legal minimum wage standards and that the workers would not get a better opportunity in a company of their country or their government. The WTO and other international organisations consider free trade even as a help because it will promote economic growth, which in turn will raise the living standards throughout the whole world and reduce also the income inequality in the future. They suggest that globalisation can promote better outcomes for many people what makes the free trade fair. Both sides, either supporting or depreciating free trade predicate that what they think and support is fair. Of course everyone is in favour of fair  trade, nobody could ever proclaim the opposite. But how can supporters of two opposed policies both be in favour of fairness. The truth has to be somewhere in the middle. In my opinion there are certainly some or even many aspects of free trade which are unfair. Those who support the free trade are certainly the international corporations and the rich. Due to free trade the wealthy companies can force some small companies down. If they sell their products at a price that is less than it ´s cost of production and this way undercuts the competition for a sufficient length of time, the competition will be forced out of the business, because everybody would demand the product with the same quality but lower price. When there is no competition anymore they can raise their prices again and be able to recoup their losses. That’s of course unfair for the smaller companies, which are not able to use this strategy and go to bankrupt because of it. So developing countries have to allow big business access to their markets. Another point which is true and doesn ´t support the free trade policy is that in cases of deciding whether to protect the environment or to encourage trade, the WTO tends to decide in favour of trade. There have been many examples for that issue. Yet the WTO allows trade to continue however there is no proof if a product is safe until it is proved unsafe. That issue should be handled the converse way, because environment and health is definitely more important than economic profit. So in this case the free trade policy of the WTO is unfair and not correct towards the environment and the population. A dramatic aspect showing the unfairness of free trade is the unequal income and wealth. The rich are getting richer and the poor are getting poorer, at least relatively poorer. Fairness in trade and globalization would mean that the rich would need to redistribute some of their wealth and income to the poor, or that the poor would need a higher percentage of the income of their nation. But free trade doesn ´t only has unfair and negative aspects. For example one point that is considered as unfair of many opponents of free trade is that workers around the world are not treated equal and do not gain wages in developing countries. But why should a man in Africa who has the same profession as a man in the US gain the same amount of many? His living cost are not as high as the living costs you have to pay in the USA. So in relation he actually gains about the same wage and is not treated unfair. Also the increasing number of developing countries is a proof for the efficiency of free trade and there are many countries which has already benefited of the WTO. To come to a conclusion I think that free trade can ´t be always fair to every country, every economy or every individual and certainly there should be some attempts made of the WTO to become more fairly in some aspects. But it ´s important to have in mind how difficult the job of the WTO is. They have to show consideration for developed countries and for developing countries, which of course have different interests. Although the developing countries and economies have some disadvantages and not the same influence, power and treatment like the developed ones, they would be worse off without the WTO and if not now, in the future they will profit of free trade. The aim is to develop a good working free trade economy on the whole world without such inequality between some countries, but to achieve this every country has to make some sacrifices.

Historical Background of the 1987 Constitution Essay

The history of the 1987 Constitution began on 11 April 1899, the date when the Treaty of Paris between the United and Spain of 10 December 1898 became effective upon the exchange of instruments of ratification of both countries. But the sources of the 1987 Constitution are (i) McKinley’s Instructions to the Second Philippine Commission; (ii) Spooner Amendment; (iii) Philippine Bill of 1902; (iv) Jones Law of 1916, otherwise known as the Philippine Autonomy Act; (v) 1935 Constitution; (vi) 1973 Constitution and (vi) Freedom Constitution of 1986 and its implementing orders. Treaty of Paris Under the Treaty of Paris, the Philippines was ceded by Spain to the United States. Spain relinquished its sovereignty over the Philippine Islands, and with this, all laws of a political nature were automatically abrogated. The Treaty provided that the civil and political status of all inhabitants of the islands was to be determined by the US Congress. The Philippines in turn, was not given the status of an â€Å"incorporated territory† (as to make it a candidate for statehood) and so ex proprio vigore, the US Constitution did not apply to the Philippines unless the US Congress expressly enacted its provisions. McKinley’s Instructions President McKinley, legislating as Commander-in-Chief, issued on 7 April 1900 his â€Å"Letter of Instruction to the Second Philippine Commission † under Taft. It set up a â€Å"divided civil and military government† with the existing Military governor as the Executive, and a Philippine Commission, created on 1 September 1900, as the Legislative, both representing the US President as Commander-in-Chief. It also extended to the Philippines all the rights in the Bill of Rights of the US Federal Constitution, except the right to bear arms (because the country was in rebellion) and the right to a trial by jury (because the Americans distrusted the Filipinos capacity to be a just judge of his peers). The right to jury trial of an American charged with a crime in the Philippines was denied by the courts in US v Dorr, 2 Phil 332 (1903) by virtue of the Letter of Instruction. This was the first Organic Act (a law which establishes the structure and limitations of the government) of the Philippines. What it lacked, as a constitution, were the ratification by the people, and the right of amendment (which was reserved solely to the US President). The judiciary was subsequently established on 11 June 1901, with a Supreme Court, Courts of First Instance, and Justice of Peace Courts. Spooner Amendment On 4 July 1901, the Spooner Amendment, which was actually a rider to the â€Å"Army and Navy Appropriations Act,† changed the then â€Å"divided, military and civil government† into a fully civil government, under the US Congress. All acts of the Philippine Commission would now begin: â€Å"Be it enacted by the authority of the US government,† and no longer by authority of the US President. Philippine Bill of 1902 The US Congress now in control of the Philippines, ratified all the organic acts of the President, in order to prevent disruption of government, and on 1 July 1900, passed the Philippine Bill of 1902, which was to be organic act of the Philippines from 1902 to 1906. The organic act introduced significant provisions to constitutional history. The Philippine Commission was the upper house. It was under the Governor-General who retained all the executive power, including the power to suspend the writ of habeas corpus upon recommendation of the Philippine Commission. It established an elective lower house called the Philippine Assembly, composed entirely of Filipinos. It called for the first election in the Philippines to fill up, the membership in the lower house, as soon as the Philippine insurrection stopped and there was a condition of general peace, except in the Moro and Non-Christian provinces. A census was taken and completed on 28 March 1903 and with a certification of peace and of Filipino acceptance of the US government made by the Philippine Commission on 29 March 1907, the election for the Philippine Assembly was conducted on 10 July 1907, with Osmena as speaker. The Bill also defined for the first time who the citizens of the Philippines were. They were all the inhabitants of the Philippine islands who were subjects of Spain as of 11 April 1899, who continued to reside therein, and all the children born subsequent thereto. This definition is still good law today. Jones Law On 29 August 1916, the US Congress passed the Jones Law, otherwise known as the Philippine Autonomy Act. It established a tripartite government with real separation of powers; this was the prototype of our present set-up. The executive power was in the hands of an American Governor-General, who was independent of the Legislature, and who was given the power to suspend the writ of habeas corpus and impose martial law without the recommendation of the Legislature. The Legislature was composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives, all composed of Filipinos. The judiciary continued to be made up of the Supreme Court, the CFIs and Justice of Peace Courts. Under this set-up, while the Filipinos has all the legislative power, the Americans had all the executive power and thus, also the control of the government. Thus, in the Board of Control (National Coal Corporation) cases, the US Supreme Court ruled, despite the dissent of Holmes and Brandeis, that the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House could not vote the stocks of the NCC and elect its directors because this was a political function. Only the Governor-General could vote the government shares, said the court. The definition of who were citizens of the Philippines first enunciated in the Philippine Bill of 1902, was carried over by the Jones Law. Tydings-McDuffie Law Although this was not an organic act, it is important in the constitutional history of the Philippines because it was to be the enabling statute, providing the mechanism whereby the constitution of an independent Philippines could be adopted. The law, upon its acceptance by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines, provided for (i) the calling of a Constitutional Convention to draft a Constitution for the Philippines, (ii) the adoption of a Constitution that established a republican government, with a Bill of Rights, and a separation of church and state, (iii) the submission of the draft to the US President for certification that the Constitution was in conformity with the conditions set by the Tydings-McDuffie Law, and (iv) its ratification by the people in a plebiscite. Complete independence was to take place ten (10) years after its effectivity. 1935 Constitution Accordingly, on 30 July 1934, an election was held to choose the delegates to the Constitutional Convention. Claro M. Recto was elected President of the Convention. On 8 February 1935, the Concon approved the draft. On 23 March 1935, the draft was certified by the President, Franklin Delano Roosevelt as conforming to the Tydings-McDuffie Law. On 14 May 1935, it was ratified by the people in a plebiscite, with the provisions on the qualifications of the President, Vice-President and members of Congress taking effect upon ratification. In September 1935, the first election under the 1935 Constitution was conducted with Manuel Luis Quezon as President and Sergio Osmena as Vice- President. On 15 November 1935, upon the inauguration of the Commonwealth, the 1935 Constitution took effect. This Constitution was to serve as the charter of the Commonwealth, and upon withdrawal of US sovereignty, of the Republic. The Constitution provides for a tripartite government, with the executive lodged in the President who had a six-year term, the legislative in a unicameral National Assembly, and the judiciary in a Supreme Court, CFIs and Justice of Peace Courts as before. In 1940, it was amended to provide for (a) a bicameral Congress with a Senate and a House of Representatives; (b) a term of four years for the President, but with re-election and (c) the establishment of an independent constitutional body known as the Commission on Elections. War ensued, and the Philippines was so devastated that the declaration of its independence, due 15 November 1945 had to be postponed. At any rate, on 23 April 1946, the election of the first officials of the Philippine Republic was held, and on 4 July 1946, the Republic was inaugurated and the Philippines became â€Å"politically† independent of the US. Theoretically, to an extent that sovereignty is never granted to a people but is earned by them as they assert their political will, then it is a misnomer to say that 4 July 1946 was the day US granted independence to the Philippines. More appropriately, it was the day when the US withdrew its sovereignty over the Philippines, thus giving the Filipino people an occasion to assert their own independence. But not â€Å"economically†. On 30 April 1946, one week after the election, the US Congress passed the Bell Trade Act which would grant Philippine prime exports entry to the US free of customs duties from 1946 to 1954, and a gradual increase in duties from 1954 to 1974 (Laurel-Langley agreement), provided that the Philippines would grant US citizens and corporations the same privileges, and in addition, the right to explore natural resources of the Philippines in parity with the Filipinos, and to operate public utilities. This must be accepted by Congress, embodied in an Executive Agreement, and reflected as an amendment in the Constitution. The Senate approval of this bill gave rise to the case of Vera v Avelino, 77 Phil 192 (1946). The Senate then had 11 Nacionalistas and 13 Liberals. Three Nacionalista Senators-elect (Vera, Diokno and Romero), known to be against the Bell Trade Act, were prevented by the rest of the Senate, in what is known as â€Å"exclusion proceedings,† on grounds that their elections were marred with fraud. The political motivation was clear but the SC was conned into lifting the injunction it issued for the withholding of the suspension, because of the unfulfilled promise that the Senate would not carry out the suspension. With the balance of power offset, the Bell Trade Act was passed. Subsequently, the SC had to dismiss the petition on the ground that the principle of separation of powers, it could not order a co-equal branch to reinstate a member. The Senate authorized President Roxas to enter into an Executive Agreement, which he did on 3 July 1946, the eve of the declaration of Philippine Independence. Then came the amendment of the Constitution in order to include the Parity Rights Agreement, which gave rise to the case of Mabanag v Lopez Vito, 78 Phil 1 (1947). Under the Amendatory Provisions of the 1935 Constitution, Congress, acting as constituent body, needed 3/4 vote to propose an amendment to the Constitution. But with the three Senators still suspended, only the 21 remaining were used as the basis for computing the 3/4 requirement. When this was raised in court, it begged off from ruling on the ground that it was a political question. It also used the Enrolled Bill Theory. So with the amendment proposed, it was subsequently ratified on 5 March 1947. The third time the Constitution was amended (1940, 1947) was in 1967. A Resolution of both houses provided for (a) the amendment of the Constitution by a Convention, (b) the increase of seats in the House of Representatives to make the Concon sufficiently representative, and (c) allowing members of the House as delegates without forfeiting their seats. The first was approved, the second and third were rejected. This became the subject matter of Gonzales v COMELEC. Election of delegates to the Concon took place on 10 November 1970. Then the ConCon met on 1 June 1971. Before it finished its work, it came up with a resolution calling for an amendment to the 1935 Constitution reducing the voting age from 21 to 18, so that a wider base could vote in the ratification of the Constitution then being drafted. A plebiscite was set by the COMELEC for 8 November 1971 but this was enjoined by the SC in the case of Tolentino v COMELEC, the court ruling that a piece-meal amendment was not allowed by the 1935 Constitution since it provided that the amendments were to be ratified at â€Å"an election† which meant only one election. The Court upheld its jurisdiction over the ConCon by arguing that since the Concon derived its power from the Constitution, it was thus limited by the Constitution. But it was subsequently overtaken by Martial Law. On 30 November 1972, the Convention submitted its â€Å"draft† to the President, who called on a plebiscite to ratify the Constitution. This was questioned in the case of Planas v COMELEC, 49 SCRA 105 (1973) on the ground that there can be no freedom of expression under Martial Law. But the case was rendered moot and academic when the President cancelled the plebiscite and instead held a citizens’ assembly on 10 to 15 January, 1973. On 17 January 1973, the President came up with a proclamation that the Constitution had come to full force and effect after its overwhelming ratification by the people in a viva voce vote. 1973 Constitution The validity of the ratification process was questioned in the case of Javellana v Executive Secretary, 50 SCRA 30 (1973) but the failure of the SC to come up with the necessary votes to declare the act as unconstitutional forced it into the conclusion that â€Å"there are no further obstacles to considering the constitution in force and effect.† The 1973 Constitution was amended four times. The first, in 1976, gave the President, legislative powers even if the Interim Batasang Pambansa was already operating. The second, in 1980 was not significant. It merely raised the retirement of justices of the SC from 65 to 70 as to keep Fernando for five more years. The third, in 1980 changed the form of government from Parliamentary to Presidential. The fourth, in 1984, responded to the succession problem by providing for a Vice-President. The start of the end of the Marcos years, of course, could be treated as early as 21 August 1983. But its immediate precursor was the Snap Election which the President was forced to call and set on 7 February 1986 to respond to the clamor for popular mandate. The validity of the â€Å"Snap Election Law† called by the Batasang Pambansa was raised in the case of Philippine Bar Association v COMELEC, 140 SCRA 455 (1985). The issue was raised because of the conditional letter of resignation sent by Mr. Marcos to the Batasan, making his resignation effective only upon (i) the holding of a Presidential election, (ii) the proclamation of a winner, (iii) the assumption into office by the winning candidate. It was contended that a conditional resignation was not allowed under the 1973 Constitution, for it did not create a vacancy, and without a vacancy, there was no reason to call for an election. But the SC failed to issue a preliminary injunction to enjoin the COMELEC from preparing for the election, thus making â€Å"the initially legal question into a political one.† In the meantime, the political parties have started campaigning and the people were so involved in the election that to stop it on legal grounds would frustrate their very will. And so, failing to come up with the majority to hold the Snap Election Law unconstitutional, the SC could not issue the injunction prayed for. The election went ahead. The rest is history. The results of the election were proclaimed by the Batasan, naming Marcos and Tolentino as the winners. But the February 2 to 25, 1986, EDSA revolution took place. On 25 February, Marcos was proclaimed in Malacanang by Makasiar, while Aquino was proclaimed in Club Filipino by Teehankee. Later that evening, Marcos fled to Hawaii. A. The February 1986 Revolution and the Proclamation of Provisional Constitution. Freedom Constitution What was the basis of the Aquino government? Did it assume power pursuant to the 1973 Constitution, or was it a revolutionary government? Proclamation No. 1, 25 February 1986 (Provisional government).– But Proclamation No. 3 which announced the Provisional Constitution, seemed to suggest that it was a revolutionary government, since in one of its whereases it announced that the â€Å"new government was installed, through a direct exercise of the power of the Filipino people assisted by units of the New Armed Forces,† referring to the EDSA revolution. The better view is the latter view. The Aquino government was not an offshoot of the 1973 Constitution for under that Constitution, a procedure was given for the election of the President — proclamation by the Batasan — and the candidate Batasan proclaimed was Marcos. Lawyers League v Aquino (GR Nos. 73748, 73972 & 73990, May 22, 1986).– This view was affirmed in Lawyers League v Aquino where the legitimacy of the Aquino government is questioned on the ground that it was not established pursuant to the 1973 Constitution. The SC ruled that petitioners had no personality to sue and their petition states no cause of action. â€Å"For the legitimacy of the Aquino government is not a justiciable matter. It belongs to the realm of politics where only the people of the Philippines are the judge. And the people have made the judgment; they have accepted the government of President Aquino which is in effective control of the entire country so that it is not merely a de facto government but in fact and law a de jure government. Moreover, the community of nations has recognized the legitimacy of the present government. All the eleven members of this Court as reorganized, have sworn to uphold the fundamental law of the Republic under her government.† The Aquino government was a result of a â€Å"direct state action.† It was not as if a small group revolted and succeeded in wresting power in the end. Rather, the entire state revolted and overthrew the government, so that right from the beginning, the installation was already lawful and the government was at all times de jure. In this regard, it must be noted that there is no such thing as a constitutional right of revolution. A revolution, from the point of view of a State, is always lawful since a State can never go wrong; it can change its government in whatever way the sovereign sees fit. But this right of revolution, inherent in sovereignty, cannot be recognized in a Constitution, for this would be self-destructive. The nature of a Constitution is to set-up a government and provide for an orderly way to change this government. A revolution contradicts this nature. Proclamation No. 3, March 25, 1986 (Provisional Constitution).– At any rate, the Provisional Constitution or Freedom Constitution was adopted on 25 March 1986 through Proclamation No. 3. It abrogated the legislative provisions of the 1973 Constitution, modified the provisions regarding the executive department, and totally reorganized the government. (Its use of the 1973 Constitution, however, is not be to construed that it was a continuation thereof.) Then it provided for the calling of a Constitutional Commission, composed of 30 to 50 members appointed by the President within 60 days. (In our history, all major constitutions — Malolos, 1935, 1971 — were drafted by elected delegates.) The President appointed 48 Commissioners, who worked on the Constitution from 1 June to 15 October 1986. The draft was submitted to the people in a referendum on 2 February 1987. On 11 February 1987, the President, through Proclamation No. 58, announced its overwhelming ratification by the people and that, therefore, it had come into force and effect. In Re: Saturnino Bermudez (145 SCRA 160)(1960).– In the case of In Re: Saturnino Bermudez , the SC held, quoting the previous case of Lawyers League v Aquino, that: [T]he legitimacy of the Aquino government is not a justiciable matter. It belongs to the realm of politics where only the people of the Philippines are the judge. And the people have made the judgment; they have accepted the government of President Aquino which is in effective control of the entire country so that it is not merely a de facto government but in fact and law a de jure government. Moreover, the community of nations has recognized the legitimacy of the present government. All the eleven members of this Court as reorganized, have sworn to uphold the fundamental law of the Republic under her government.

Adam as the Hero of Paradise Lost Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Adam as the Hero of Paradise Lost - Essay Example It is a mistake to suppose that he could ever have been intended for the popular personification of evil’ (Shelley). This view of Satan is debatable and needs to be discussed in detail. Satan has remained the most dynamic character of the epic but Adam personifies the values and traits that far exceed that of Satan who needs to plot against him to remain in good books of God in the Paradise. Satan is portrayed as a headstrong, confident and brave person but his vanity about his own powerful stature and his ambition to become God brings about his downfall. He challenges the God’s son ascendancy and incites other angels ‘[B]y what best way†¦Whether of open war or covert guile,/We now debate; who can advise, may speak’ (ll. 40-42). In fact, Satan’s character is highly anti-hero primarily because despite having commendable personality and traits, his failure to cash on his good qualities is frequently displayed through his shrewd planning and deceit. He uses subterfuge and tempts Eve with apple so that Adam can also commit the action that would make him fall from God’s grace. Satan’s continued revolt against God’s decision is highly critical aspect of Satan’s character and reveals his flaws that promote chaos and therefore, do not let him become the hero of the epic. ‘Th’ Infernal Serpent; he it was whose guile / Stirred up with envy and revenge, deceived / The mother of mankind, what time his pride / Of rebel angels, by whose aid aspiring / To set himself in glory above his peers / He trusted to have equaled the Most High’ (I. 35-40). The cunning and ambiguity of character diminish his more heroic traits. Satan is also shown to possess vanity and would rather prefer hell to heaven if he can be a ruler there! ‘Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven’ (Book I, l. 263). Despite his bitterness, he accepts hell so that he could remain in the commanding position. His ego and his ambitious goal to become the heir of God encourage

The Global Business Environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Global Business Environment - Essay Example The environment in which Toyota operates is becoming extremely tough every day. All businesses are facing problems today due to increasing costs, cultural diversity, globalization and decrease in global demand. The world has seen a great financial crisis in recent years and economies are still to recover from it fully. In such environment companies are finding it hard to produce and sell its product to customers. The external environment is also affecting organizations in new ways because media and communication technology has developed so much and any ethical issue can seriously hurt the reputation of the company. Competition is also increasing in business environment as companies are trying to innovate and market their products in better ways. In this report we will conduct an external environmental analysis for Toyota. We will talk about markets, competition and regulations that can have an impact on the company. The ethical issues, corporate social responsibility and environmenta l policy and its affect on Toyota will also be discussed. This paper will deal with the external environment and not with the strategy of Toyota. Markets, Competition and Regulation Markets are evolving at a great pace in today’s fast moving world and it is important to keep in mind the changing demand of target market. Competition is also increasing as companies are trying to increase efficiency by decreasing costs and improving quality of their products. Regulations are also getting stern everyday and automobile companies have to keep in mind the safety standards set by the companies. This means increase in testing of cars which will lead to greater costs. In this section the impact of markets, competition and regulation on Toyota will be discussed. Markets and its Impact of Toyota The main target market of Toyota is the middle class income group of the world. These are the people who cannot afford luxurious cars but want vehicles that are cheap but durable vehicles. Toyota provides cars to middle income people of the world and prices are also lower in comparison to BMW and Mercedes. Over the years this target market has been consisted as they cannot switch to expensive cars and they also don’t switch to cheaper manufacturers. This is why this market of Toyota was considered relative safe and loyal to Toyota. But this is changing because now the target market of Toyota is also evolving. The target market is demanding innovation in designs and specifications. The medium income group target market has become more aware of the different brands in the market. They have also become more design oriented and are demanding newer and better designs. Car movies and games have informed the market about fast cars and sleek designs therefore they want these things in their cars. This problem is staring Toyota in the face because design was never a strong point of the company and its focus was on durability and prices. Evolving markets are in this way impact ing the business strategy of Toyota. The main strategy of Toyota is that of reducing service costs by giving customers quality and durability (Harrup & Janssens, 2008). This is causing problems because the markets of Toyota are evolving and they are demanding better designs from the company. The external environment is therefore impacting the strategy of Toyota. The increasing focus on design and specification of the market can decrease the demand of Toyota cars. Customers will look for new car manufacturers

Discussion #1 APS 210 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion #1 APS 210 - Essay Example 2. The best security technologies for faith-based facilities are the least physically noticeable ones as they cause less obtrusion for the parishioners. These include inbuilt electronic door locks, access controls, hidden surveillance cameras, motion detectors and metal detectors. Security strategies include training the facility attendants on security surveillance, developing a sound emergency action plan, and enhancing instant communication systems for emergencies. 3. Before establishing the security enhancements for the places of worship, it is important to notify the parishioners and the surrounding community of the intended changes of the intended changes and their purposes. This step avoids any alarms and misunderstandings that may occur from security upgrades. 4. One similarity is that both cases receive protection from similar threats, which most of the times are terrorism and theft. A difference is that faith based organization facilities receive far more discreet protection measures, which impede on personal privacy on a much lesser scale the than U.S. Critical Infrastructures. Faith based organization facilities also receive protection on a much smaller scale in terms of monetary investments and level of expertise than the Critical Infrastructure locations (Harrell

PERFORM COMPARISON CONTRAST BETWEEN WORKS BY DFFERENT WRITERS BASED ON Essay

PERFORM COMPARISON CONTRAST BETWEEN WORKS BY DFFERENT WRITERS BASED ON STYLE, SUBJECT MATTER OR THEME - Essay Example The gruesome picture of racism, social discrimination and many other contemporary issues has been depicted by Afro-American authors. Harriet Jacobs, a writer, reformer and abolitionist, was a 19th century Afro-American literary figure (Yale University, 2009) who was also known as the ‘fugitive slave author’ of the American slave narrative Incidents in the Life of A Slave Girl, Written by Herself. Her active involvement in reform movements before, during and after the Civil War, and her own experience of slavery for 29 years helped her sketch her characters poignantly and realistically. Modern day readers and scholars would have been in the darkness about the life and works of Harriet Jacobs unless the revolutionary work of Professor Jean Fagan Yellin who, by dint of extensive research and studies, authored her biography: Harriet Jacobs: A Life. This book received the 2004 Frederick Douglass Book Prize for its immaculate detailing about how Jacob’s literature was s haped by her turbulent life. (Yale University, 2009) Audre Lorde, born in New York City in 1934, is renowned for her poems, essays and novels. She was brought up in Manhattan and was sent to Catholic school where her first poem was published in ‘Seventeen’ magazine. Lorde got her B. A. from Hunter College and Masters in Library Sciences from Columbia University. Her professional career, which began as a librarian in New York public schools, saw many turn of events as she later on got an employment as a writer-in-residence at Tougaloo College in Mississippi. It was here when she discovered an inclination for pedagogy, and at the end of her tenure here in 1968, her first volume of poems ‘The First Cities’ was brought out. She also met her long-term partner Frances Clayton in Tougaloo. (Poets.org, 1997-2009) Born in 1912 to parents one of which was a strict disciplinarian and another

The Accounts Receivable (Sales Ledger) of Cookridge Carpets Essay

The Accounts Receivable (Sales Ledger) of Cookridge Carpets - Essay Example The firm that is analyzed in the paper is Cookridge Carpets Ltd. It is a large carpet, soft furnishings and bed Dealership Company located in Southampton. The company was established in the year of 2007, works as the main dealer for Memo@memory foam beds and mattresses. The company is owned by two brothers Peter and John Cookridge. The Cookridge Carpets has three major stakeholders: Suppliers, customers, and staff. Memo Beds, in the year of 2010, offered the main dealership to the Company in the area of Southampton as the local dealer for the Memo Beds. The Company provides its services to the local residents of the Southampton and the local residents are the main customers of the Cookridge Carpets. The owners of the business have a considerable experience in direct sale of carpets and beds to the locals. However, recently they have gained accessed to the Internet and have made a significant sale via the Internet. As a result, the business has considerably increased. Currently, the c ompany employs 20 members of staff including nine direct sales staff, two cleaners, three internet sales staff, one accessories salesperson, two car delivery drivers and three part-time staff in the small accounts department. There are three staff members in the accounts office: Sonja Douglas, Stefan Kalinowski and Margaret Peterson. Sonja Douglas is Wages clerk. Stefan Kalinowski is Accounts Clerk and Margaret Peterson is also Accounts Clerk. Accounts payable or purchase ledger is maintained by Peter Cookridge and Margaret Peterson also works in this department.... 1.3 PIC 1.4 There are three staff members in the accounts office: Sonja Douglas, Stefan Kalinowski and Margaret Peterson. Sonja Douglas is Wages clerk. Stefan Kalinowski is Accounts Clerk and Margaret Peterson is also Accounts Clerk. Accounts payable or purchase ledger is maintained by Peter Cookridge and Margaret Peterson also works in this department. All suppliers cheques are signed either John or Peter. And, Accounts receivable or sales ledger is maintained by Stefan Kalinowski. Stefan’s main function is to maintain all the sales related transactions and maintain the receivables records as well. 2- Software (PIC 3.3., 3.4) 2.1 PIC 3.3 There is four computers in the office and is maintained by a standalone basis along with linked to the same printer. Microsoft Office Excel Spreadsheets are availed to record information and data pertaining to the inventory of carpets, beds and soft furnishings. When the company was established two new computers were purchased and currently r unning the Windows Vista operating system; they are also enabled with Microsoft Office 2007 along with a three use licence. In addition, when the computer system was first time introduced in the company, a password ‘Paula C’ was used and is still currently operational throughout the company. 2.2 PIC 3.3The company is using the most basic type of accounting techniques in the shape of Microsoft Office Excel Spreadsheets and may not serving the ultimate objectives of the company. Although the use of Microsoft Office Excel Spreadsheets can be cost effective, yet it cannot be 100 percent reliable as it is so easy that even a lay man can amend, delete or change data present in

MRKT - Buyer Behaviour - Assignment 1Individual report Essay

MRKT - Buyer Behaviour - Assignment 1Individual report - Essay Example A lot of other factors like of age, sex, ethnicity, etc are involved in designing the needs and choices for body modification among individuals. Body modification is influenced by a large number of issues. In fact, the concept of enhancing one’s looks depends upon a host of factors like demographics, income distribution, among a few others. The diversified notions regarding different body modification products can be judged best by analysing the customers who are in any case the best judge of a product. Theoretical models of consumer behavior portray the decision making process of an individual as a function of ones own needs and wants; however, in many cases, buying decision of the same individual gets affected by the needs of others i.e., family, friends, social class etc. Consumer behavior is a new subject which has its inputs from economics, psychology, social science and political science. Effectively, the behavioral trend of customers is tracked through the stimulus-response analysis. Marketers provide a stimulus through their product offerings and try to attract the customers through packaging, promotion and pricing. The customer responds to the stimulus by their choice of purchase. The most efficient method to analyse a customer’s buying behavior is through inductive analysis. In this study, the effect of internal and external factors that might be affecting the customer is identified. ( Solomon M. R., Dann S. Dann and Bennett, 2007) In analysing the buying behavior of customers for body modification products, a survey was conducted across some random respondents. The summary of the findings are diverse and interesting. In order to make the research comprehensive, different forms of body modification techniques were selected; Botox treatment, Lasik surgery, tattooing, body piercing, hair transplantation, and breast implantation. Botox treatment is a common therapy to remove wrinkles in the eyebrows area. It is done through

Evolution of the Financial Development-Economic Growth Research Paper

Evolution of the Financial Development-Economic Growth - Research Paper Example Ultimately, this financial development is seen to impact on better quality investments with higher yields and lower risks, thereby fuelling wealth creation and economic growth.   A similar and more recent study conducted by James Ang (2007) found that financial development leads to higher output growth through the promotion of both private savings and private investment, within the context of the Malaysian economy.   It is hoped that this present study will be able to establish findings of a similar nature, but concerned with more than savings and investment, relevant to ten countries with the highest GDP rates,   and within the milieu of the first two years of the 2008 global financial recession. Ultimately, this financial development is seen to impact on better quality investments with higher yields and lower risks, thereby fuelling wealth creation and economic growth.   A similar and more recent study conducted by James Ang (2007) found that financial development leads to higher output growth through the promotion of both private savings and private investment, within the context of the Malaysian economy.   It is hoped that this present study will be able to establish findings of a similar nature, but concerned with more than savings and investment, relevant to ten countries with the highest GDP rates,   and within the milieu of the first two years of the 2008 global financial recession. 1.3   Statement of the Problem This study will undertake to describe the relationship between the financial development of an economy and the growth of that economy.   It will focus on the economies of four countries:   the United States, the United Kingdom, India, and China.   The study shall also utilize World Bank and IMF indicators to determine their responsiveness to the statistical study on such a causal relationship. 1.4   Objectives of the Study In particular, the paper shall seek to establish the following:1.4.1 To investigate the financial indicators representing financial development, as determined by the WB and the IMF  1.4.2 To determine which among the indicators of economic growth (GDP in local currency, GDP in US dollars, GDP in purchasing power parity, or GDP growth) exhibits the best association with the financial indicators.1.4.3 To assess the relationship between financial indicators and the appropriate economic growth indicator, and the degree to which financial development is influential upon economic growth.

Comparing the scientific method and the engineering method of problem Essay

Comparing the scientific method and the engineering method of problem solving - Essay Example Conversely, engineering is based on the tenets of coming up with new inventions that have not been in existence before. However, it is worthwhile noting that both scientific and engineering approaches may be integrated to solve a problem. Nevertheless, the need to create better understanding necessitates a comparison of scientific and engineering approaches in relation to problem solving. Due to objective differences, science and engineering follow different processes in coming up with solutions. A scientific approach begins with a question seeking answers to a particular phenomenon. This is then followed by a background research on the various studies related to the phenomenon at hand. The background research may touch on directly related studies considered to be standard or accurate. As such, a scientist is able to identify loop holes, if any, in the current studies giving guidance on the particular problem at hand. However, more importantly is that a background research enables formulation of an appropriate hypothesis. The hypothesis purports to offer a better explanation compared to already existing ones in relation to given problems. As such, before advancing further, the proposed hypothesis must first be tested against the existing ones. This implies that a new proposition must explain a phenomenon that has not been explained by the already existing ones. A valid proposed hypothesis is then subjected to a number of tests to prove its workability and validate its predictions. If the proposed hypothesis shows the predicted results, it is accepted and adopted as the new best hypothesis giving a solution to the particular problem in play. However, if a hypothesis arrives at already known phenomena it only increases credibility of already existing hypothesis rather than replacing them. Conversely, if a hypothesis fails to meet the predicted threshold, it is rejected. However, a hypothesis normally undergoes a couple of experiments to eliminate room for error.

Role of crossing boarders in Translations Essay Example for Free

Role of crossing boarders in Translations Essay At the end of the play, Jimmy Jack says and the word exogamein means to marry outside the tribe. And you dont cross those boarders casually, both sides get very angry. In the light of this quotation, examine the dramatic and thematic significance of the role of crossing boarders. In many ways, Translations is a pessimistic play, particularly about the capacity of people from different cultures to communicate to each other. It is pessimistic in the sense that all attempts to break past ancient barriers fail. It is in this sense that the theme of crossing boarders is very significant in the very foundations of the play. More specifically, Translations highlights the importance of language, and communication in general, for the conflicts between different groups. Lack of communication builds boarders and makes them impenetrable. The structure or Translations allows Friel to explore several layers of events and themes. On one level, it is about a series of local incidents in a small village in northwest Ireland in 1833, which compel the characters to change the way they live. On another level, its sole purpose is to explore the themes of cross cultural conflict and communication. This themes are explored through the characters, them relationships and what happens to them in the play. We see attempts to cross boarders in many of the characters. The first example is our first introduction to Owen, Hughs sophisticated and charming son who works for the British forces. It is made obvious from the description of him in the stage direction that he appears to have crossed from the typical rural Irish stereotype that has been formulated to a more commercial English one. He is smartly dressed and described as looking like a city man in a great contrast with Manus, the lame soldier, who we discover is his brother. At this point in the play Owen seems to be trying to make what could be termed as a crossing bridge between the two cultures and languages; he is the go between. While this could first imply that he has changed sides, so to speak, we see later in the play that this is not the case. If you analyse the language he uses when he first appears at the hedge school it is difficult to decide if he genuinely appreciates and elevates his heritage and traditional culture, thus supporting my argument, or whether he is mocking it. For example: (Act I p27)I come back after six years and everythings just as it was! Nothings changed! (Act I p29)Honest to God, its such a delight to be back here with you all again-civilised people. While at this point in the play we could be lead to believe he is saying such things in mocking and thus abandoning his old culture and successfully crossing boarders, later in the play we see a shift in his tone and language. He looses his enthusiasm for the British colonial cause and begins to disagree with the English thinking that the Irish names should be standardized. (Act III p68) The originals Saint Muranus. Dont you think we should go back to that? We see him appreciating the historical significance of names that he had previously discarded in Act I as insignificant: (Act I p37) Owen-Roland-what the hell. Its only a name. However, reinforcing my argument, even in his temporary shift of loyalty Owen creates tension, particularly with Manus. Hugh on the other hand is just pleased to have him home. This is emphasized in the stage directions. (Act I p 26) He embraces Hugh warmly and genuinely Hughs eyes are moist-partly joy, partly the drink contrasts with Manus cold tone and manor Youre welcome Owen; he speaks to Owen like he would when welcoming a guest. By attempting to cross boarder he is estranged. And so, even though he manages to cross the boarders of language, he never completes the transition to the other tribe. However, even this periodic shift of loyalty causes tension thus linking to the idea of Exogamein that Jimmy Jack refers to. One of the most conventional structures for a play is to begin with a situation, then introduces some complications, before moving towards a resolution. Friel follows this for the first two acts but in Act III he avoids resolving some situations. We see this is the character of Maire, the pragmatic rural woman who wants to learn English and emigrate. Even from the beginning of the play she is portrayed as a tough rural strong minded, strong-bodied woman, but still shows her practical character and pragmatic approach: (Act I p 8) Fit me better if I had that much English She is the only character who wants to speak English thus showing her adaptability and acceptance to change in the early stages of the play. In the same way that whether or not Maire emigrates is left unresolved, so is the death of Yolland. We have little doubt that if Yolland is still alive he and Maire will get married and will the be only characters to successfully cross boarders. Their relationship is probably the most relevant to the title statement by Jimmy Jack in the last scene. It is interesting, in terms of the theme of the play, that Brian Friel chose not to resolve this issue, that he chose not to confirm their failure. Their relationship, however, causes many more serious consequences than Owens temporary shift of loyalty. We suspect the Irish rebels kill Yolland and then as a result the British Forces threaten to level the Irish town of Baile Beag. Friel was obviously trying to show the disastrous consequences of what such a simple innocent relationship can result in. This, again, can be linked to Jimmy Jacks statement. It is interesting that Friel chose the last scene of the play to draw particular attention to this theme and leads us to believe that he does this so the audience will go away from the performance with the imagery of ravished farm lands, and militant violence and this theme fresh in their minds. In conclusion, after analysis of the plays structure and central ideas we can see that the theme of crossing boarders is the most significant in the play as in a way, all aspects, whether they be linguistic, cultural or geographical are connected to it. Although Friel is quoted to have said Translations is a play about language and only language cannot be doubted that in writing Translations Friel wanted to make his audience aware of the consequences of crossing ancient barriers built by language, and made impenetrable by language.

Colgate Palmolive Industry Position

Colgate Palmolive Industry Position Colgate-Palmolive is recognized as the worlds leader in personal care sales which included oral hygiene products like toothbrushes and toothpastes. In 1991, its sales topped at $6 billion and profits at $2.76 billion as it cornered 43% of the worlds toothpaste market and 16% of the worlds toothbrush market. In the United States, the worlds largest market, Colgate-Palmolive holds the number one spot in toothbrush sales with a market share of 23%. From these statistics, one of Colgate-Palmolives main strengths is being the market leader in oral care products. Colgate-Palmolives extensive overseas reach is another main strength. Based on the data in the case study, Colgate-Palmolive introduced 275 new products worldwide and setup manufacturing facilities in China and Eastern Europe breaching the emerging economies of the 21st century. On top of that, international sales accounted for 64% of total sales and 67% of the total profits for Colgate-Palmolive. Colgate-Palmolive has an extensive Research and Development department boasting 170 employees worldwide. Though having a large RD department does not directly contribute to increased profits, Colgate-Palmolives history of innovation  [1]  in the toothbrush market is linked to its current position as the market leader in the toothbrush industry. Therefore Colgate-Palmolives strong commitment to innovation through investment in RD is a prominent strength. With an energetic and visionary leader like Reuben Mark at the helm of Colgate-Palmolive, the company has transformed itself into a lean and profitable machine, leading to increased profit margins and volume growth.  [2]  Clearly, having a visionary CEO is a strength. Colgate-Palmolives positioning strategy for its toothbrush line in food stores has aided in capturing their current dominant market share. Its in-store displays, combining toothbrushes with toothpaste packs and locating the Colgate-Palmolive line of toothbrushes in the middle of the stores shelves have contributed to this dominance. This strategy has been successful, as sales through food stores, drug stores and mass merchandising channels have produced the greatest volume and dollar sales historically.  [3]   Colgate-Palmolive has a large number of stock keeping units for their toothbrush line.  [4]  Multitudes of SKUs indicate that Colgate-Palmolive is targeting a broad spectrum of market segments in the toothbrush market, which spreads the risk inherent to carrying any product. Diversification of product types within the toothbrush market is another strength factor Colgate-Palmolive holds. Colgate-Palmolives secret weapon in the war for supremacy in the super-premium market, Colgate Precision, is proven to be very effective in removing plaque 35% more effective than existing brands and in preventing gum disease. This advantage can be attributed to the innovative design, high-tech research using CAD and infrared scanning, consumer research and extensive product testing. Although this technology is a strong argument for positioning Precision in the super-premium category, Colgate-Palmolive could also use its design aspects to improve Colgate-Palmolives existing professional and value toothbrush lines to increase their respective market shares. Colgate-Palmolives patented  [5]  innovation for Precision also stands as a strength upon which Colgate-Palmolive can lean for other market differentiating advancements. Colgate-Palmolives recent infusion of new capital into its manufacturing facilities will bode well as it prepares to battle for market share in the new super-premium market segment. Colgate-Palmolive will be able to leverage its existing relationship with its manufacturing partner, Anchor toothbrush, to quickly and cost-effectively product its newest product. Weaknesses The impending release of Colgate-Palmolives new toothbrush, Precision, may affect sales of its existing toothbrush lines. This may lead to a cannibalization of the Colgate Plus and Colgate Classic market of up to 60%.  [6]  Since the existing toothbrush lines are the cash cows  [7]  of the companys oral care division, a dismal performance by the new Colgate-Palmolive Precision might drain the cash cows of their resources altogether. Colgate-Palmolives media expenditure layout is very small compared to its rivals.  [8]  It has spent only $7 million dollars on its Colgate-Palmolive Plus marketing efforts and has only 19% of the share voice. Since media exposure fuels consumer demand  [9]  for a new product, this is one area where Colgate-Palmolive needs to have its expenditures equivalent to that of its rivals. Another marketing weakness that Colgate-Palmolive faces is its lack of professional dental endorsements, with less than half that in market share and dollar sales than that of their largest competitor, Oral-B. Similar to Colgate-Palmolives lack of professional endorsement, the Precision toothbrush does not have the fullest endorsement from the American Dental Associations (ADA). Although the ADA issued its seal to the product, the seal alone stands for little more than recognition that the toothbrush works. In fact, only when the ADA issues its seal and an official quote stating that a product is superior to similar product types, does a product receive the fullest support possible. Not having the full backing of the ADA is a weakness which Colgate-Palmolive may have to overcome to gain the professional endorsement they seek.  [10]   Opportunities Macroeconomic The emergence of the niche super-premium category presents a golden opportunity for Colgate-Palmolive to increase market share for several reasons. First, although its competitors, i.e. Oral-B, Johnson Johnson and Procter Gamble, have gained a foot-hold in this niche market already, Colgate-Palmolive can still make a dent with its new Precision toothbrush, thus enabling them to enter a new and potentially highly profitable market segment. Since the super-premium category accounts for 35% of the volume and 46% of the dollar sales of toothbrushes  [11]  this niche category may in turn result in a substantial profit margin. Secondly, with the baby boomers and younger generations becoming more concerned with the health of their gums, they will be willing to pay the above mentioned premium for a toothbrush  [12]  which is optimized for better gum care. Colgate-Palmolive can capitalize upon this demographic segment to ensure a successful release of their super-premium Precision toothbrush. Finally, since 82% of toothbrush purchases are unplanned and many consumers are unaware of the technological and cost variation among toothbrush brands,  [13]  Colgate-Palmolive could establish a media blitz with educational ads depicting Precision toothbrushes as technologically superior to its rivals at an equivalent cost. The ads can also serve to educate consumers about proper toothbrush replacement schedules to ensure effective plaque removal and gum disease prevention. Ultimately, Colgate-Palmolive could leverage their advertising campaign to boost sales and revenues. Microeconomic One of Colgate-Palmolives competitors, Johnson Johnson,  [14]  ranked third in toothbrush sales, was phasing out one of its toothbrush lines at the time of the Precision introduction. As the toothbrush market remains rather constant, courting customer from other brands, particularly ones being phased out, is a tremendous opportunity to gain market share.  [15]  Another competitor, Smithkline Beecham, was predicting an operating loss in its toothbrush business.  [16]  If the losses are sustained, it might cause Smithkline Beecham to move out of the toothbrush business all together, yet again opening the door for further gain of market share. Colgate-Palmolives constant innovation also provides an opportunity to convert consumers away from less advanced toothbrushes, such as those offered by Lever. Threats Threat of intense segment rivalry The super-premium toothbrush market is highly competitive, hosting many brands and private label toothbrushes. If any of these rivals creates a toothbrush which tops or even equals the technology of Precision, specifically if done at a lower production cost, Colgate-Palmolive may lose market share. Threat of new entrants Along with intense rivalry from existing competitors, Colgate-Palmolive has to deal with new competitors. In 1991, the toothbrush market exploded with a dramatic increase in new entrants. Proctor and Gamble introduced Crest Complete, their first toothbrush  [17]  . Smithkline Beecham entered the market with Aquafresh Flex and a 9% market share volume for 1991. Levre, Pfizer and Sunstar all entered the market in 1991 and earned a total 11% market share. These numbers reinforce the seriousness of the threat of new entrants that Colgate-Palmolive will have to contend with when they launch Colgate Precision. Threat of substitute products Similar to many industries, oral care technology has advanced tremendously since its inception in approximately 3000 B.C. The introduction of the nylon bristled toothbrush in 1938  [18]  represents one of the latest quantum improvements for the industry, however it was not the last. The introduction of electronic toothbrushes and water picks are threatening to usurp traditional oral care products market share. This is a threat which Colgate-Palmolive needs to heed, despite its confidence in the technology of Precision. Threat of suppliers growing bargaining power Colgate-Palmolive depends on Anchor toothbrush for its outsourced manufacturing. Hence, Anchor toothbrush has a decided supplier advantage in the relationship with Colgate-Palmolive. If Anchor toothbrush were to increase its supply cost, it would affect Colgate-Palmolives production costs which in turn would impact Precisions market share by potentially pricing it above even the super-premium segment. Colgate-Palmolive needs to maintain a healthy relationship with Anchor toothbrush to reduce the risk of a costly supplier switching process. Threat of buyers growing bargaining power One of the factors which can cause buyers bargaining power to grow is when the switching costs for buyers are low. Even if Colgate-Palmolive were to position Precision as the most expensive toothbrush on the market, it is still a relatively inexpensive product, compared to many daily purchases (i.e. lunch in NYC or a cup of coffee at Starbucks). Therefore, buyers can easily switch between toothbrush brands without giving the decision much thought. To combat this threat, Colgate-Palmolive could position Precision as a superior toothbrush that customers can not afford to be without. PROBLEM STATEMENT In 1992, after evaluating the current market condition and completing its research and development, Colgate-Palmolive was ready to begin marketing its newest toothbrush, Colgate Precision. Of major concern to Colgate-Palmolive was how to position, brand and communicate this new product to the general population. Colgate-Palmolive also had to develop budget constraints and generate a marketing mix that would maximize the sales and revenues of the new product. Colgate-Palmolive was faced with the decision of whether to promote the new product as a high quality niche product marketed mainly towards individuals concerned about gum disease, or as a mainstream toothbrush that would be marketed as the best toothbrush available. If marketed as a niche product, Colgate-Palmolive would target a smaller market segment without as many competitors vying for market share. A niche market segment would also be willing to pay a premium for the new toothbrush. If, however, the toothbrush were marketed as a high quality mainstream toothbrush, Colgate-Palmolive would realize revenues from larger volumes of sales despite a lower price and more competition. To reach its verdict, Colgate-Palmolive analyzed forecasted data with regard to potential sales volumes and prices, advertising, packaging, and manufacturing costs, among other factors. A summary of this analysis, and a marketing strategy recommendation follows. EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES In August 1992, Colgate-Palmolive had two options regarding the positioning strategy for their new toothbrush titled Colgate Precision. Their choice was to position the product as a mainstream offering or target the Precision toothbrush to a niche market. The positioning of the product would have little to do with any modifications to the actual design of this toothbrush, but would effect the perception of the toothbrush within the market. Mainstream or mass marketing refers to the mass production, distribution and promotion of a single product to all potential buyers.  [19]  Contrarily, niche marketing is a form of micro-marketing. It refers to a specifically defined group of consumers with a need that is not currently well served. A niche is created from a subdivision of a market segment.  [20]  Due to the diversity of these two market types, the decision to market the Precision toothbrush as a mass-market product or as a niche product involves analysis of the advantages and disadvantages for each. Mainstream Marketing Advantages The primary reasons to use a mainstream marketing approach is that the product is made accessible to a larger market. Marketing to a more diverse audience would enable Colgate-Palmolive to construct a more simple and direct campaign that would address the common concerns of all toothbrush buyers. Consequently, the use of television and radio would be more cost effective as it would reach this larger audience. The obvious goal of such a position would be to capture a greater return on the investment Colgate-Palmolive made on this products research and development effort. It is estimated that within twelve months this product could secure 10% of the market and a volume share of 14.7% by its second year. This would equate to 27 million retail unit sales in year one and 44 million in the second year, if positioned as a mainstream product.  [21]   Disadvantages There are also many problems with marketing Precision to the masses. In the mainstream market a higher price makes a product less attractive to the average consumer. This means that Colgate will have to price their product within reasonable alignment of other similar products in order to be a serious competitor inside this market, ultimately diminishing their potential profit margin and return on investment. There is a variance amongst consumers in relation to oral hygiene. They are classified into three groups: Involved oral health consumers Therapeutic brushers Involved oral health consumers Cosmetic brushers Uninvolved oral health consumers These segments are divided into relative percentages of adult toothbrush users. They are 46%, 21% and 33% respectively.  [22]  This illustrates that one third of the toothbrush using adult population has only little interest in oral hygiene and are probably not a worthwhile audience to which to pitch the Precision toothbrush. The expense of including these consumers in the target market would not be advisable. In the design and testing phase of the Precision toothbrush, Colgate-Palmolive accrued significant clinical data concerning the product. This information would not be relevant to the mainstream market that most likely would view it as too scientific. The Precision toothbrush was originally conceived to be a top-of the-range, super-premium product  [23]  indicating that production schedules had been developed in line with a niche marketing strategy. Mainstream marketing would require a greater volume production of the toothbrush with an estimated ten month lead time to achieve sufficient quantities of the product. This could result in an inadequate supply of the product at the outset.  [24]   The objective of the research and development group working on the product was to develop a superior, technical, plaque-removing device.  [25]  It was produced to be the best toothbrush possible and become the top-of the-range, super-premium product.  [26]  All of these phrases are heavily skewed towards niche merchandising. A mainstream product should aim to serve all of the people, all the time. This product clearly was created with niche-oriented goals. The greatest issue facing Colgate-Palmolive if they were to promote this product in the mainstream market is that it would be distributed through the same channels as an existing Colgate-Palmolive toothbrush called Colgate Plus.  [27]  Colgate Classic was the companys original entry in the toothbrush sector and was positioned as a value segment. The Colgate Plus came later and was placed in the professional segment as a higher quality product.  [28]  Including Precision as a high-end, mainstream product could potentially cannibalize Colgate Plus sales. Finally, Susan Steinberg, the product manager of Precision, felt that incorporating the new product into the mass market would require the company to delete one or more of the seven existing SKUs (stock keeping units) that Colgate-Palmolive produced.  [29]  This strategy could result in a loss of market share in the value or high-end segments. Niche Marketing Advantages Advertising companies have access to audience profiles through a wide variety of media products, such as television, radio and print media. This is the fundamental basis for successful niche marketing. A great advantage of offering any eligible product to a niche market is that it allows for a concentrated, specific advertising campaign, targeted to a specific demographic, psychographic, behavioral or geographic segment through whichever medium is most effective at reaching the specific population.  [30]  This allows efficient use of advertising budgets. Precision falls within the class of goods that could tender itself as a niche product. Developed to be the best toothbrush possible and placed in the super-premium category, this toothbrush is inherently a niche product. Members of the public most interested in this toothbrush would be those in the Involved oral health consumers groups; therapeutic and cosmetic brushers. Therapeutic brushers are interested in functionally effective products and differentiate between brands.  [31]  Both segments of customers would appreciate the scientific data Colgate-Palmolive has complied on this toothbrush. The facts that the initial clinical trials removed an average of 35% more plaque over that of Reach and Oral-B, and that it assists in the reduction of the likelihood of gum disease, would be effective information for this group.  [32]  Unlike the mass market, these are issues which a niche market segment would comprehend and about which they would care. Niche market participants are also more likely to pay a premium for this product due to the fact that Precision caters to a distinct set of needs they have. With this type of positioning, a 15% increase in price above Oral-B regular would be anticipated, bringing the cost to consumers to $2.13 per unit (more aligned with Oral-B Indicator). A mainstream market could only be anticipated to pay $1.85, in accordance with the Oral-B regular line.  [33]   As Precision was conceived more as a niche-type product, initial production was set for the lower demands of the smaller market segment. As discussed previously, to change the natural emphasis of the toothbrush to mainstream distribution would require a major overhaul of projected production schedule and costs due to the increase number of units required. Additionally, to keep Precision as a specialized product means that the new product is less likely to invade the market share of other Colgate-Palmolive products, like the Colgate Plus. This would also preserve the number of SKU that Colgate-Palmolive currently produces in the toothbrush sector. Niche markets historically attract fewer competitors.  [34]  This gives time and room for a new product such as Precision to establish itself and build up a market share before it may have to fight against a new contender. Disadvantages Marketing the Precision product to a niche market would generate less revenue for Colgate-Palmolive than a mainstream approach. Working with the estimated figures for the first two years of release generates the following table. Niche marketing Mainstream marketing Year 1 Year 2 Year 1 Year 2 No. units sold 8MM 15MM 27MM 44MM Factory list price $2.13 $1.85 Total revenue generated $17,040,000 $31,950,000 $49,950,000 $81,400,000 Obviously, the niche market revenue is significantly less than the mainstream market revenue, despite the 13% higher price. Conclusion Developing and communicating a positioning strategy for a product is necessary and critical. Differentiating a product, and the degree to which that product is differentiated, can be guided by quantifying the following criteria: Importance Distinctiveness Superiority Preemptiveness Affordability Profitability Using these parameters, a company can provide the public with a reason to buy their product.  [35]   Another tool used in solving the marketing mix problem companies face when launching a new product is a perceptual map.  [36]  This is a graphic representation of two or more features against which similar products can be ranked. When graphed, the resulting map displays areas to which the product types cater, revealing both areas of over population and areas of potential opportunity. Clusters of products exist when similar products appeal to the same consumer market participants. In these areas, competition is intense, therefore, they are not as attractive when positioning a new product. An optimal plan is to create a space within the product market that is relatively free of rivals and can enable a new product to develop and dominate. A perceptual map for Precision was created from the following data: Toothbrush Price Benefits Class Colgate Precision 0.8 0.9 Super Premium Oral-B Indicator 0.8 0.8 Super Premium Oral-B Regular 0.7 0.6 Super Premium Crest Complete 0.5 0.6 Super Premium Reach Advanced 0.6 0.5 Super Premium Aquafresh Flex 0.7 0.7 Super Premium Colgate Plus 0.4 0.4 Professional Reach Regular 0.3 0.4 Professional Pepsodent Professional 0.2 0.4 Professional Colgate Classic -0.4 -0.1 Value Pepsodent Regular -0.3 -0.1 Value Butter GUM Microtip 0.3 -0.1 Value Butter GUM Supertip 0.4 0.1 Value Menedent Pro-Core 0.7 0.7 Professional Oral-B cross action 1 0.8 Super Premium Generic Eckerd Interdental -0.5 -0.2 Value Generic Eckerd Angle -0.7 -0.2 Value Crest Advantage 1 0.8 Super Premium Recommendation Using these evaluative criteria in relation to the advantages and disadvantages of niche and mainstream marketing, we believe that Colgate-Palmolive should position the Precision toothbrush as a niche product. This would establish Precision as the leading toothbrush on the market at a competitive price. It would be a superior and distinctive oral care product. However, we believe this product would also work in the mainstream market and we envision it moving towards the mass market in the future. Once the toothbrush has established itself as a high quality product with specialty features, we believe that Colgate-Palmolive could transition the product to a wider audience. This will also allow time for Colgate to reconcile the position that the Colgate Plus product will hold relative to the Precision line. Further, we anticipate no significantly negative issues will be encountered by initially marketing Precision as a niche product and then moving it into the mainstream market. We do not believe the opposite would be true, as a niche market will most likely not accept a product that has been offered to the masses as the best value, and then marketed as a specialty item. The anticipated cyclical nature of the product on the market is well illustrated by the Boston Consulting Groups Growth-Share matrix.  [37]  The Precision toothbrush will begin as a question mark. This means the company will spend money developing and establishing the product in anticipation of increasing its market share. Subsequently, the hope would be for Precision to become a star, meaning it has been successful by obtaining a high market share and growth rate. If the product evolves into a mainstream offering by this time, the company will reap higher rewards. Going even further into the future, the toothbrush will most likely decrease its market growth rate while maintaining its high market share. At this phase the product will be a cash cow. Revenues produced from Precision at this phase can be used to establish other question marks and/or subsidize other stars if required. The final phase in this products life cycle will be a decline into dog status. This refers to the product when it has weak market share and low growth. At that point, Precision would need to be removed from the companys product line, allowed to decline further or all together repositioned in the market. At this point, the research and development phase for Precision has been completed, a thorough analysis has been performed on the current market situation, and a marketing strategy has been recommended. The final aspects of launching a new product must now be investigated product, price, place and promotion. PRODUCT Colgate-Palmolive has many important decisions to make regarding the new toothbrush before it becomes available on store shelves for customers to purchase, including the positioning strategy for the new toothbrush. To reach a conclusion, the new toothbrush must be analyzed on three product levels the core product, the actual product, and the augmented product so that customers needs are fully understood and the Precision toothbrush is correctly marketed to meet those needs. Since we are recommending that Colgate-Palmolive choose a niche market for Precision, the core benefit that the toothbrush will deliver to its users is plaque removal. Less plaque in turn leads to the added benefit of a reduction of the lik

The genesis of elements

The genesis of elements Introduction The periodic table is continually enriched with new elements synthesised by nuclear reactions in laboratories, but only 90 of all the elements occur naturally. Those are found between atomic numbers 1 to 92, which is from 1H to 92U, excluding the elements technetium (43Tc) and promethium (61Pm). The latter two are made artificially, even though technetium has been recently discovered in stars. All the elements are made from two fundamental building blocks, the protons and the neutrons, given the term nucleons. These are packed together into nuclei, with each element containing a different ratio of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. The nucleons can only be produced or annihilated at very high energies, and this occurred at the beginning of the universe. What happened the first moments of the creation of the universe and how were the elements synthesised? are the questions around which this report is circulated. Using astrophysics to discuss the universe creation is beyond the purpose of this report, and therefore most of the physical equations are excluded. All the terms are explained in simple scientific terms. The areas discussed are how the universe began and how the elements were formed in this universe creation timeline, including any relevant nuclear reaction equations and theories that lead to the creation of the chemical elements as we know them at present. [1, 2] The Big Bang and the origin of the chemical elements The most widely accepted theory in cosmology is currently the Big Bang Theory, which was based on Einsteins General Theory of Relativity (E=mc2). According to this, the universe was once concentrated in a small primeval nucleus of extremely high temperature and infinite density. For some reason, that hot, dense state began to expand homogeneously and cool down at an incredibly fast rate. This sudden expansion into space, distributing radiation and matter everywhere uniformly, gave rise to the birth of the universe and it is known with the misleading title Big Bang (even though it was not an explosion but an expansion). The reason that caused this sudden expansion is not known yet, and scientists are still trying to give an answer to this big cosmology question with many research projects taking place in this field for the past few decades. It is beyond modern science to define what happened before the Big Bang since time and space came into being at that moment. According to this theory the universe is about 15 billion years old. But which are the evidence that this Big Bang actually occurred? [1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] Universes expansion In 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe is expanding and that the galaxies that make up the universe are moving away from our galaxy with velocities proportional to their distance from us. Hubbles law describes this expansion, stating that the farther a galaxy is from us, the greater its radial velocity of recession. Hubbles equations as follows [9]: v (radial velocity) = H (Hubble constant) x d (distance) In simple terms this means that the most distant galaxy is moving away from us at the fastest rate and the nearest at the slowest. This, however, does not mean we are at the centre of the universe, since every observer in the universe sees all objects moving away from them with velocity proportional to the distance. So although the universe is expanding, it looks the same from every single galaxy. Hubbles conclusions resulted from observing the velocities via the redshift, which is the Doppler Effect applied to light waves. Each galaxy has a set of emissions and absorptions seen in their spectra and their characteristic frequencies are known. The characteristic lines from galaxies spectra turn out to move towards the red end of the spectrum, which means the galaxies are receding from us. This effect is known as the redshift. If the galaxies were moving towards us the light waves would be crowded and the frequency would be raised. Since the blue light is of high frequency, a shift towards the blue side of the spectrum would be obtained, giving a blueshift. But this does not occur, and the galaxies are all redshifted. The proportional relationship between speed and distance indicates that in the past all the matter must have been concentrated at a point of extraordinary high density, from which it expanded to its present form. Hubbles discovery provides one of the evidence for the Big Bang Theory. [6, 9, 11] Cosmic Background Radiation In 1965, Penzias and Wilson were investigating the radio noise found at wavelengths between a few millimetres and a few centimetres, by means of a special low-noise radioantenna. Once all the known sources of noise were identified, a remaining signal of radiation was left as an annoying excess noise. This signal was coming from all directions and the noise did not change in intensity with the direction of the antenna in the sky or the time of day and season. This radiation was identified to be Cosmic Background Radiation. The radiation that Penzias and Wilson discovered was seen as the dying remnants of the Big Bang, and was probably formed due to photon production from matter-antimatter annihilation. Once the photon background was produced, it cooled with the expansion of the universe leaving behind this background radiation. This radiation contains more energy than the rest of the universe (stars and galaxies). In the universes early life, when it was very hot, radiation could not travel very far without being absorbed and emitted by some particles. This constant exchange of energy maintained a state of thermal equilibrium and therefore a thermal spectrum can now be obtained. In 1989, Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite was launched which took measurements from above the earths atmosphere, obtaining more accurate results for this radiation than Penzias and Wilson. The shape of the spectrum of thermal radiation that was observed at the temperature of 2.73K was very similar to that of a blackbodys spectrum at the same temperature. The cosmic microwave spectrum shows that this radiation was generated in equilibrium conditions since it has a thermal shape. The radiation is also known as the 3K radiation or the Cosmic (comes from all directions) Blackbody (because of its spectral shape) Microwave (since its spectrum peaks at cm to mm wavelengths) Radiation CBM. In 2001 the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) was launched by NASA, designed to determine the geometry, content and evolution of the universe and to make fundamental measurements of cosmology. WMAP successfully produced a full-sky map of the temperature anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation, and it still continues to collect data from space. The results from the different measurements of the cosmic background radiation taken through years are shown in the figure following. Furthermore, the measured uniformity of the radiation confirmed some assumptions about some of the universes properties: its homogeneity (it looks the same at each point) and its isotropy (it looks the same in all directions). To summarise, two evidences supporting the Big Bang Theory have already been discussed: The Big Bang Theory explains Hubbles observation that the universe is expanding, since it must have started its expansion from a hot and dense state in its early life. It accounts for the existence of the cosmic background radiation observed by Penzias and Wilson, and confirms the assumptions that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic. The third evidence for the theory is that it accounts for the origin and the abundances of the light elements that exist in the universe. [6, 7, 9, 12, 14] The timeline of the Big Bang Before the Big Bang the universe was compressed into a hot and dense nucleus. When the Big Bang occurred, the universe began to decompress rapidly. The modern science has not yet defined what happened earlier than Plancks time which is at 10-43s after the Big Bang. At that time the four forces of nature were unified in a single super force (also referred to as Wald), being equally powerful. The four forces are divided in the next two categories: Forces between particles (operate over large distance): Electromagnetic Gravity Forces in subatomic domain (operate over very short distances): Strong nuclear force (it holds the nuclei of atoms together) Weak nuclear force (it crops up in radioactive decay and helps fission) The forces strength is as follows: Strong > Electromagnetic > Weak > Gravity In the primeval fireball formed after the Big Bang, the photons energy was so high that they can collide to form particles (creation of matter from light and formation of matter and antimatter in pairs. This is seen from the Einsteins equation, E=mc2, which doesnt say that this relationship is irreversible. So matter can become energy or energy can become matter! [5, 9, 10] Some important terms, which are mentioned on the above timeline, are very briefly explained below [9, 10]: Quarks are the elementary particles that make up the protons, neutrons etc. A proton is made out of three quarks: 2 up and 1 down quark. Neutron is made out of 2 downs and 1 up. The antimatter has the same properties as the regular matter except that it has the opposite electrical charge. Inflation is the early phase of the exponential growth of the universe. Baryons are particles made out of 3 quarks. Out of those particles only protons and neutrons are stable; therefore the baryonic matter in the universe is considered to be made mostly out of them. The electrons are often included in the term baryons even though they are not made out of three quarks. The universe has neutral charge, i.e. 1 electron for every proton. Radiation: what we see in the universe comes from electromagnetic radiation. The light is made up from individual particles, the photons, ?. These protons spread at the speed of light, and (mostly the high energy ones) can interact with baryons and electrons; for example they ionise an atom by taking off an electron. Neutrinos are extremely weak interacting, massless particles produced in radioactive decay The particles that were present in this cosmic nucleosynthesis are given in the following table: In general, the universe is made out of the following [10]: Baryons (p, n, e) Radiation (photons) Neutrinos Dark Matter and Energy Nuclear Processes taking place during the element formation The light elements of the periodic table were produced during the beginning of the life of universe, whereas the heavier elements were produced later by thermonuclear reactions that power the stars. The early universe could be viewed as a type of thermonuclear reactor. However, the abundances of the light elements produced soon after the Big Bang, have changed at present due to the nuclear processes in stars and other subsequent events in the interstellar medium. Some of the reactions taking place during the life of the universe until now are shown on the following table. Element Abundances The abundance of the elements is the third evidence supporting the Hot Big Bang theory as seen earlier. These abundances are obtained from detailed spectroscopic analysis of samples taken from earth, meteorites, comets, moon, planets etc. The chemical element abundances can be recorded in three different ways [16]: Mass fraction: the mass of a constituent of a mixture over the total mass of all the constituents in the mixture à   w = a / (a+b+c+) Volume fraction: the volume of a constituent of a mixture over the sum of the volumes of all constituents before mixing. For gases, the volume fraction is similar to the mole fraction à   ? Mole fraction: the number of moles of a constituent over the total amount of all constituents in the mixture à   x The graph has some certain features and trends which are seen below [1, 2]: There is an approximately exponential decrease from H until A~100 (atomic mass number) or Z~42 (atomic number). Then, gradual decrease is observed. For higher A, the rarity of synthesis increases showing that the stellar evolution (which builds the heavier elements) is not very common. A peak is seen between Z=23-28, i.e. for elements V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni. At the maximum of the peak lies iron, and it is seen that Fe is 103 times more abundant than expected compared to its neighbouring elements. The e-process (equilibrium). Iron lies on the maximum energy that can be released in stellar nucleosynthesis with the element burning processes. After this, the elements form mostly by neutron capture. The elements D, Li, Be, B are rare compared to their neighbouring H, He, C, N which are highly abundant. Their production is insufficient. Also they are consumed at very high temperatures in the stellar interiors. These elements are mostly made by stellar spallation. Light nuclei up to Z~21 having their A divisible by 4 are more abundant than their neighbours. This was observed by G. Oddo in 1914. These elements are alpha particle nuclei (e.g. O16, Ne20Ca40, Ti48). It is seen that the He-burning and alpha-process are more efficient than the H-burning and s-process in these regions. Double peaks can be seen at A = 80, 130, 196 (peaks due to neutron capture with r process) with A = 90, 138, 208 (due to neutron capture with the s process) Magic numbers at N = 50, 82, 126 for progenitors and stable nuclei Atoms with even atomic mass number, A, are more abundant that those with odd A, therefore the alternate peaks (up and down) are seen in the graph. Heavy atoms tend to be neutron rich. Proton rich heavy nuclei are rare This is because the proton- rich nuclei are produced in the p- process which is rare compared to the r- and s- processes. The r and s peaks seen in the following smoothed curve correspond to the elements formed by the slow and rapid neutron capture processes. Some elements require the neutron capture to be slow enough so that intervening beta decays can occur. However, some other elements need neutron capture to happen very fast to be able to form through some short-lived nuclei. [18] Big Bang Nucleosynthesis The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN) occurred a few brief moments after the beginning of the universe, way before the stars existed. The light element formation happened via nuclear fusion reactions (a process by which smaller nuclei are joined into larger ones), which raged throughout the universe. It is also known as Cosmic or Primordial Nucleosynthesis. For nuclear reactions to occur, some conditions should be present, which were both satisfied in the early universe: The temperature and density should be high enough, so that the kinetic energy of nucleons can overcome the coulomb barrier The particles must come close enough for the attractive nature of the strong nuclear force to overcome the repulsion of the electromagnetic force between the positive charges of the particles (protons). As seen earlier, the universe was born by expansion from a hot, dense state in which its constituents were elementary particles. Atomic nuclei, except from the proton, began to form through nuclear fusion reactions, which could not take place until the temperature was low enough for them to occur. When the universe was about 1 second old, protons became available for fusion, and a proton and neutron can be combined to form a deuteron. However, the deuteron was destroyed by photodissociation (break up of a nucleus by high energy gamma rays) before the more stable helium was formed. At this stage fusion could not proceed further until the universe was cooled further. At about 100s after the Big Bang, the temperature had fallen to 109K and fewer deuterons were destroyed, allowing 4He to form, along with all the isotopes of hydrogen and helium below 4. No considerable amounts of elements above nucleus 4 were formed since there are no stable nuclei of atomic number 5 and 8. However, traces of 7Li and 7Be were formed. At 1000s, the temperature had fallen too low for particles to have enough energy to overcome the coulomb barrier. Therefore, the fusion reactions stopped occurring and the abundances of the elements were frozen. Most matter existed as rarefied gas for a few hundred million years until it was slowly drawn towards a star, where more reactions could take place, due to higher temperatures. The only nucleus formed in a considerable amount was 4He, with some traces of lighter nuclei. Most of the material continued to be 1H. Light element formation Deuteron formation through fusion of a proton with a neutron gives out a photon of high energy (gamma ray). Most of the energy is carried away with this gamma ray, allowing the proton and neutron to bind. Otherwise, they would bounce off each other. The reversible reaction is also true, so a gamma ray can destroy the deuteron. n + p à   d + ÃŽ ³ When there is not anymore sufficient energy and collisions to form many deuterons, they start combining to form helium nuclei: d + d à   4He + ÃŽ ³ However, some two step processes can occur between the proton, neutrons and deuterons to form the helium and hydrogen isotopes, 3He and 3H, as a between step. These two step processes are: p + d à   3He + ÃŽ ³ n + 3He à   4He + ÃŽ ³ and n + d à   3H + ÃŽ ³ p + 3H à   4He + ÃŽ ³ These processes can happen in the forward or backward way, until they reach equilibrium. Neutron decay In the early universe, the temperature was high enough for free protons and neutron to exist in thermal equilibrium at high energies. The free neutrons would travel long distances before colliding with other baryons, having a great chance of decaying into protons. n + ve ßà   p + e- + 0.8MeV (ve is e- neutrino)[ref.2] When the thermal energy drops below 0.8MeV it is hard for backward reaction to occur and therefore more neutrons decay into protons, setting the ratio of n:p to 1:5. However, as soon as the energy falls more (about 0.1MeV) the neutrons manage to form nuclei and become stable, with the ratio now being n:p to 1:7 due to further reduction of the number of neutrons by decay that occurred in the time that it took for the energy to fall. As seen, the only elements produced in significant abundance are 1H and 4He. 4He is formed since it is the most stable of the light elements and 1H is present since there are not enough neutrons to react with the protons (1:7 ratio of neutrons to protons) and a large amount of protons are left over. In universes primordial composition 4He is found to be about 25% (mass fraction). Since 4He is four times heavier than 1H, it implies that there is one helium nucleus for every twelve hydrogen ones. Other elements abundances are (compared to 1H abundance): D =10-4, 3He = 10-5, 7Li = 10-10 [ref.2] The mole fraction of the elements is H 88.6% and 4He 11.3%. Since H and He account for 99.9% of the atoms in the universe, it is concluded that nucleosynthesis of heavier elements has not yet gone very far. [ref.4] At present, the observed abundances of the elements are successfully reproduced by the Big Bang Theory (providing an evidence for the theory). However, the present composition of the universe is slightly altered from its primeval composition, because of the nuclear reactions occurring in stars. Stellar Nucleosynthesis Stellar nucleosynthesis is the fusion process that powers the stars, forming heavier elements out of the lighter ones. The main reactions taking place during this process are summarised in the table below, and then discussed more broadly. Hydrogen burning Hydrogen burning is the fusion of four hydrogen atoms to form a helium one. This happens through two different routes: [ref.6] Proton-proton chain. This is the primary energy producing process in most stars, especially in low mass stars like our Sun, and is as follows) p + p à   d + e+ + ve p + d à   3He + ÃŽ ³ 3He + 3He à   4He + p + p The fusion of two protons to form a deuteron (the nucleus of a deuterium atom with 1p 1n) 3He is an isotope of helium with 2 p and 1 n 4He is the most common isotope of helium, having 2p and 2n. In the 1st step takes a very long time to occur (5109 years), since it involves the weak nuclear force and there is a very small cross section. This is the reason for the long life of stars. The 2nd step involves the electromagnetic interaction and occurs in about 1 second, whereas the 3rd step involves the strong nuclear force, taking about 3105 years. CNO cycle. It is another method for burning of hydrogen, using carbon, nitrogen and oxygen as catalysts. These get consumed so as to help the process occur, but are afterwards reformed. p + 12C à   13N + ÃŽ ³ 13N à  13C + e+ + ve p + 13C à   14N + ÃŽ ³ p + 14N à   15O + ÃŽ ³ 15O à   15N + e+ + ve p + 15N à   12C + 4He Nitrogen nucleus decays Oxygen nucleus decays Helium Burning (triple-alpha reaction) Hydrogen burning releases 90% of the total energy available from fusion. The rest is coming half from the helium burning and the other half from other nucleus burnings up to 56Ni or 56Fe. However, since 5Li and 8Be are unstable, fusion after He can continue only at high density. During the triple-alpha process three 4He nuclei fuse to form 12C. Then, helium and carbon react so as to form oxygen. Some reactions are: 4He + 4He ßà   8Be An almost 100% reversible process since 8Be is highly unstable. 4He + 8Be ßà   12C* An excited state of 12C is formed and almost all decays back to He and Be. 12C* à   12C + e+ + e- However, about 0.2% decays into a stable carbon nucleus. When the 8Be barrier has been passed and the triple-alpha process forms carbon, the following also can occur: 4He + 12C à   16O + ÃŽ ³ 4He + 16O à   20Ne + ÃŽ ³ Carbon Burning The carbon burning follows when the star has run out of helium fuel. This can give three different products. 12C + 12C à   20Ne + 4He 23Mg + n 23Na + p Oxygen burning etc. Oxygen burning: 16O + 16O à   28Si + 4He Neon Burning: 4He + 20Ne à   24Mg + ÃŽ ³ A 28Si can dissociate into 7 4He and react in silicon burning. Silicon Burning: 28Si + 74He à   56Ni (which can then ?-decay to 56Fe during or after a type II supernova) From the above reactions protons, neutrons and alpha particles are released, which are then available for additional captures so as to form further isotopes of the elements. The mass barriers in the element formation In 1939 Bethe observed that no elements heavier than helium can be built up to any appreciable extent, since there are no stable elements of mass 5 nucleus. No reasonable ways of formation of elements could be given, since none of them would work: The addition of a neutron or a proton onto helium can not occur to form a mass 5 nucleus (unstable) The direct formation of 8Be out of two 4He is not possible due to the fact that 8Be is very unstable, with negative binding energy The formation of 12C out of three helium nuclei would not work either. However, at sufficiently high temperature and density 4He can bind to form 8Be and therefore the mass 4 barrier can be passed. This beryllium formed, even though very unstable and at low quantities in the star interiors, it is enough to form 12C when another helium nucleus is added to it (Salpeter, 1952). Once the unstable mass 5 and 8 barriers are overcome, more elements can be formed. Beyond the Iron Peak Explosive Nucleosynthesis The normal nuclear fusion reactions occurring in the star interiors can only form elements up to iron, 56Fe. They do not produce any elements beyond the iron peak since this would require energy rather than yielding energy. Beyond the iron peak, elements can be formed mainly by neutron captures. After 83Bi, no more stable isotopes can be formed. Neutrons are produced by some of the processes seen earlier, and one of the most favoured one is: 13C + 4He à   16O + n In stars, mass loss processes, where a return back to the interstellar medium material occurs which is however altered from when it formed the star, are very common. These can be mild and form planetary nebulas, or can be violent and catastrophic explosions, known as novae and supernovae. During the latter processes, heavy elements are form rapidly before or after the explosion with neutron captures. The two main types of neutron capture synthesising the heavy elements have been briefly discussed earlier (see p.13) and they are the following: S-process (Slow neutron capture) R-process (Rapid neutron capture) An unstable species has to decay before capturing another neutron, and therefore the s-process produces the less neutron rich compounds, since the process is slow enough, it allows beta decay by electron emission and the isotopes are stable before a lot of neutrons have been added. However, during the r-process the neutrons are added rapidly and the nuclei do not have enough time to decay, allowing more neutrons to be added until they can not accept any more. This process forms the more neutron rich elements. Other processes The proton rich isotopes of the heavy elements are formed by the p-process, i.e. proton captures. The elements 2H, 3He, 6Li, 7Li, 9Be, 10B and 11B, as well as some less neutron rich isotopes are not produced in significant amounts form the Big Bang and are less abundant than their neighbours. They are mostly formed during spallation reactions (fragmentation), during which more abundant elements (like C, N and O) are broken up in reactions between cosmic rays and the interstellar gas. The cosmic rays consist of small subatomic particles (mainly p and He nuclei) which travel through our atmosphere from space at the speed of light. They are created in supernovae and some star interactions. The particles in the cosmic rays are accelerated by the galaxys magnetic field and fly towards every direction. During their journey around the galaxy, the heavier particles of the cosmic rays collide with the atoms in the interstellar matter (mostly 1H and 4He), causing fragmentation, producing those lighter elements. Nova Some stars in the galaxy for binary systems, in which there are two stars revolving around each other. If their masses are different the bigger star will evolve faster and at some point their atmospheres combine, causing instabilities to form, resulting to an outburst of energy and matter as an explosion. This increases the luminosity of the stars and a nova is seen. During this procedure, heavy elements are synthesised. Supernova A supernova is a catastrophic stellar explosion during which so much energy is released that all the billions of stars can be outshined by it. It occurs when an evolving star runs out of nuclear fuel, and the core is so unstable that it collapses rapidly (in less than a second!). Just before or during this explosion, thousands of nuclear reactions (neutron captures) occur in a very short time, and form heavy elements. The remains of the supernova spread out into space and can be used in the formation of new stars or can be captured by other evolving stars. Conclusion In this report some of the well known up to date discoveries of cosmology were discussed. However, the universe is so infinite and mysterious that many questions about its creation and the element formation remain unanswered and plenty of areas are still in dark. NASA is currently the largest organisation performing investigation evolving around important cosmological questions, with its program Beyond Einstein. The satellites COBE and WMPA try to find an answer to what powered the Big Bang, whereas other missions wish to discover what the mysterious dark energy causing the expansion of the universe is. Fascinating findings about our universe and the genesis of elements are awaiting to be brought to light in the years to come. References (in order of appearance in text) Greenwood, N. N. and Earnshaw, A., 1997. 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The origins of our universe: a study of the origin and evolution of the contents of our universe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Zeilik, M., 2002. Astronomy: the evolving universe. 9th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Liddle, A., c1999. An introduction to modern cosmology. Chichester: Wiley Rowan-Robinson, M., 2004. Cosmology. 4th ed. Great Britain: Oxford University Press Zeilik, M. and Gregory, S.A., c1998. Introductory astronomy and astrophysics. 4th Ed. Singapore ; London : Brooks / Cole / Thomson Learning University of Melbourne, 2009. Why do magnetic depend on who measures them [online]. Available from: http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~dnj/teaching/160mag/160mag.htm [Accessed on